Theories of Memory

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Ebbinghaus

The issue was hypothesized by Hermann Ebbinghaus in 1885, which is why it's called Ebbinghaus forgetting curve. The theory is that humans start losing the memory of learned knowledge over time, in a matter of days or weeks, unless the learned knowledge is consciously reviewed time and again.

Forgetting curve 

The Atkinson–Shiffrin model (also known as the multi-store model or modal model) is a model of memory proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin.^[1] The model asserts that human memory has three separate components:

1. a sensory register, where sensory information enters memory. It includes iconic and echoic memory.Iconic memory is the storage for visual memory that allows people to visualize an image after the physical stimulus is no longer present. It is a type of sensory memory that lasts just milliseconds before fading. Echoic memory is the sensory memory that registers specific to auditory information. Once an auditory stimulus is heard, it is stored in memory so that it can be processed and understood. Unlike visual memory, in which our eyes can scan the stimuli over and over, the auditory stimuli cannot be scanned over and over.
2. a short-term store, also called working memory or short-term memory, which receives and holds input from both the sensory register and the long-term store. Short-term memory is the capacity for holding, but not manipulating, a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time. For example, short-term memory can be used to remember a phone number that has just been recited.

1. a long-term store, where information which has been rehearsed (explained below) in the short-term store is held indefinitely.

Since its first publication, this model has come under much scrutiny and has been criticized for various reasons (described below). However, it is notable for the significant influence it had in stimulating subsequent memory research.

Baddley's working memory 

DIGIT SPAN

Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain, and later retrieve information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

How Memories Are Formed

In order to create a new memory, information must be changed into a usable form, which occurs through the process known as encoding. Once the information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use.

Table of Contents 

• What Is Memory?
• Formation
• Duration
• Using Memory
• Organizing Memory

What Is Memory?

Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain, and later retrieve information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Human memory involves the ability to both preserve and recover information. However, this is not a flawless process. Sometimes people forget or misremember things. Sometimes things are not properly encoded in memory in the first place.

Memory problems are often relatively minor annoyances like forgetting birthdays. However, they can also be a sign of serious diseases, like Alzheimer's and other kinds of dementia. These conditions affect a person's quality of life and ability to function.

This article discusses how memories are formed and why they are sometimes forgotten. It also covers the different types of memory and steps you can take to improve and protect your memory.

How Memories Are Formed

In order to create a new memory, information must be changed into a usable form, which occurs through the process known as encoding. Once the information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use.

Researchers have long believed memories form due to changes in brain neurons. Today, experts believe that memories are created through the connections between neurons (nerve cells)—either the strengthening of existing connections or the growth of new connections.1

Changes in the connections between cells, known as synapses, are associated with the learning and retention of new information. Strengthening these connections helps commit information to memory.

This is why reviewing and rehearsing information improves the ability to remember it. Every time it is practiced, it strengthens the connections between the synapses that store that memory.

Much of this stored memory lies outside of our awareness most of the time except when we actually need to use it. The memory retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories into conscious awareness.

 How Information Retrieval From Memory Works

How Long Do Memories Last?

Some memories are very brief, just seconds long, and allow people to take in sensory information about the world.

Short-term memories are a bit longer and last about 20 to 30 seconds. These memories mostly consist of the information people are currently focusing on and thinking about.

Some memories are capable of enduring much longer, lasting days, weeks, months, or even decades. Most of these long-term memories lie outside of immediate awareness, but can be drawn into consciousness when needed.

Using Memory

To use the information that has been encoded into memory, it first has to be retrieved. There are many factors that can influence this process, including the type of information being used and the retrieval cues that are present.

Why We Forget

Forgetting is a surprisingly common event. Just consider how easy it is to forget someone’s name or overlook an important appointment. Why do people so often forget information they have learned in the past? There are four basic explanations for why forgetting occurs:

• Failure to store a memory
• Interference8
• Motivated forgetting
• Retrieval failure

Research has shown that one of the critical factors that influence memory failure is time. Information is often quickly forgotten, particularly if people do not actively review and rehearse the information.

Sometimes information is simply lost from memory and, in other cases, it was never stored correctly in the first place. Sometimes memories compete with one another, making it difficult to remember certain information. In other instances, people actively try to forget things that they simply don’t want to remember.

How to Improve Memory

No matter how great your memory is, there are probably a few things you can do to make it even better. Useful strategies to deal with mild memory loss include:5

• Write it down: The act of writing with a pen and paper helps implant the memory into your brain—and can also serve as a reminder or reference later on.9
• Attach meaning to it: You can remember something more easily if you attach meaning to it. For instance, if you associate a person you just meet with someone you already know, you may be able to remember their name better.
• Repeat it: Repetition helps the memory become encoded beyond your short-term memory.
• Group it: Information that is categorized becomes easier to remember and recall.
• Test yourself: While it may seem like studying and rehearsing information is the best way to ensure that you will remember it, researchers have found that being tested on information is actually one of the best ways to improve recall.2
• Take a mental picture: Systematically trying to make a mental note of things you often forget (such as where you left your car keys) can help you remember things better.
  
• Get enough rest: Research has also found that sleep plays a critical role in learning and the formation of new memories.5
• Use memorization techniques: Rehearsing information, employing mnemonics, and other memorization strategies can help combat minor memory problems.

Role stress of teachers

Teachers play a critical role in shaping the lives of our nation’s children. Teachers not only facilitate learning, but also influence a child’s social and emotional development.
Today, teaching is one of the most stressful occupations in India.

High levels of stress are affecting teacher
health and well-being, causing teacher burnout, lack of engagement, job dissatisfaction, poor performance, and
some of the highest turnover rates ever.

Stress not only has negative consequences for teachers, it also results in lower achievement for students and higher costs for schools.

1. School Organizations that lack strong principal leadership, a healthy school climate and a collegial, supportive environment;
2. Job Demands that are escalating with high-stakes testing, student behavioral problems, and difficult parents;
3. Work Resources that limit a teacher’s sense of autonomy and decision-making power;
4. Teacher Social and Emotional Competence to manage stress and nurture a healthy classroom.
Interventions 
Interventions to help reduce teacher stress fall into three
broad categories:
1. Organizational Interventions – An approach that focuses on changing the organization’s culture to prevent stress from occurring;
2. Organization-Individual Interface Interventions
– An approach that includes building workplace relationships and support;
3. Individual Interventions – An approach that teaches individuals practices to manage stress. 

Policy

Several programs and policies are proven to help teachers reduce stress, improve well-being and student outcomes, and even save schools money.

These include:
Mentoring and induction programs for beginning teachers can improve teacher satisfaction and retention, as well as student academic achievement.
(Organization-Individual Interface)

Workplace wellness programs have resulted in reduced health risk, health care costs, and absenteeism among teachers. (Organization-Individual Interface)

Social emotional learning (SEL) programs that improve behavior and promote SEL among students also help reduce teacher stress and create more positive engagement with students. (Organization-
Individual Interface)

Mindfulness/stress management programs can help teachers develop coping and awareness skills to reduce
anxiety, depression, and improved health. (Individual)

Ref: https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/primary-school-teachers-suicide-rate-double-national-average-uk-figures-a7635846.html%3famp

Trading psychology

Good afternoon 

Respected chairpersons, distinguished delegates on and off the dias, Sri Sourav Roy of NSE.

As Psychologist, I am grateful to know that National Stock Exchange of India Limited along with Securities Exchange Board of India (SEBI), National Institute of Securities Market (NISM) along with 6 other Market Infrastructure Institutions (MIIs) are participating in the 45th Kolkata International Book Fair and is organising one academic platform to empower the Investors through Education and Awareness. 

People are afraid of investing the money in market as investment is treated as the process of action for profit. Here lies the misconception about investment as investment is related to both profit and loss just like our lifestyle. We are reading the book to get high marks in the examination. But sometimes we are not getting the expected high marks. Does it lead us to be depressed ?. No, it creates challenge in us. 

I am Psychologist, I perceive investment from two perspectives- investment as reinforcement and investment as life skills.

INVESTMENT AS REINFORCEMENT  Reinforcement theory is a psychological principle maintaining that behaviors are shaped by their consequences and that, accordingly, individual behaviors can be changed through rewards and punishments. After investing, investors are getting good returns so it is considered as reward. On the other side, investor when experienced loss, it is treated as punishment. Here investor is shareholder.  A shareholder, also referred to as a stockholder, is a person, company, or institution that owns at least one share of a company's stock, known as equity. Because shareholders essentially own the company, they reap the benefits of a business's success. These rewards come in the form of increased stock valuations or financial profits distributed as dividends. Conversely, when a company loses money, the share price invariably drops, which can cause shareholders to lose money or suffer declines in their portfolios. A shareholder is any person, company, or institution that owns shares in a company's stock. A company shareholder can hold as little as one share. Shareholders are subject to capital gains (or losses) and/or dividend payments as residual claimants on a firm's profits. Shareholders also enjoy certain rights such as voting at shareholder meetings to approve the members of the board of directors, dividend distributions, or mergers. In the case of bankruptcy, shareholders can lose up to their entire investment. There are two types of reinforcement as proposed by B.F. Skinner. These are positive and negative reinforcement.  Positive reinforcement involves the use of rewards to reinforce behaviors. Negative reinforcement involves the removal of aversive stimuli to reinforce the target behavior. Company's good amount of dividend is considered as positive reinforcement and failure of giving dividend is considered as negative reinforcement. Dividend refers to a reward, cash or otherwise, that a company gives to its shareholders. Dividends can be issued in various forms, such as cash payment, stocks or any other form. A company’s dividend is decided by its board of directors and it requires the shareholders’ approval. However, it is not obligatory for a company to pay dividend. Dividend is usually a part of the profit that the company shares with its shareholders. Company can give the dividend following fixed time interval. This is fixed interval schedule. Similarly company can vary the interval for giving dividend. This is called the variable interval schedule. Incase of former, investor is less anxious and can make out better investment planning as dividend will reinforce the investor to make more investment in the market. In variable interval schedule, investor’s uncertainty level is very high. Investor can invest in market other than fixed company market. Instead of interval schedule, company can give dividend following ratios. Here ratio means fixed ratio and variable ratios. There are few fundamental financial ratios namely working capital ratio, quick ratio, earning per share ratio, price earning and debt equity ratio. All the ratios are indicative of company performance. Fixed ratio: A fixed-ratio schedule is a schedule of reinforcement where a dividend  is reinforced only after a specified company performance. Therefore, investor should pay attention to  workflows, projects, and other pertinent day-to-day activities in order to identify strengths and weaknesses of the company. Financial statements used in evaluating overall financial performance include the balance sheet, the income statement, and the statement of cash flows.Financial performance indicators are quantifiable metrics used to measure how well a company is doing. No single measure should be used to define the financial performance of a firm. Variable ratio:  Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule. In sharemarket, this might involve delivering incentive to investor after purchasing one share, again after four share purchase, and then again after two share purchase. bar presses. In the field of investment, there are two broad ratios - fixed exchange and floating exchange ratios. Investor must be aware of few fundamental ratios before investment as working capital ratio, Earnings per share, P/E : Share price / EPS, Debt to Equity ratio. Probable mindset of investors

Investment as life skills following Rabindrik Values.

SELF-AWAKENING - It means motivating self to know own needs, competencies, limitations. It develops self awareness. Self-awareness simply means that you are aware of what you are doing and how you are doing it. Investor should not be blind in purchase of share. Investor should analyze the trade market educating self on reading chart characteristics and price action. Here mind set should have positive weightage. Investor imagines positive power and energy in him. EMOTIONAL CONTROL: Trading in the stock market requires years of practice and thorough understanding of market dynamics to maximize gains. Unlike investing, where the holding period is long, trading involves frequent buying and selling of securities. Among the several things that you should not do while trading is to trade under emotions. Emotional trading has several pitfalls, and doing so can result in significant capital loss. Here are reasons why emotions shouldn’t cloud your trading activity. It’s prudent to trade (buy and sell) securities with robust fundamentals to enhance your riches. However, when you trade emotionally, more often than not, you tend to ignore these essential aspects. For instance, during these times, when markets are experiencing an exhilarating bull run, there’s a fear of missing out doing rounds. Many investors feel that they will miss the bus if they don’t invest now.  In the process, they tend to overlook the vital aspects of trading and may end up banking on stocks with weak fundamentals. This elevates the quantum of risk significantly, and there are high chances of capital loss. So, it’s prudent to keep your emotions under control and go about the entire activity. On the other hand, when you trade unemotionally, your judgments are based on logic, facts, and figures. You trade according to the goal you wish to achieve and get your calls right. This not only enhances your wealth but gives you a pleasing experience. Forbes suggests few unemotional investment skills as : forget the short cut success, navigating the market better, understanding the impact of various market forces, and developing a solid strategy to augment your gains further, making trading experience better. Irrespective of whether you trade under fear or greed, there are chances of your experience going sour. A bad experience, especially during formative trading days, can act as a dampener and turn you off markets once and forever. Many investors have turned their back on markets following a not-so-good experience, thus robbing themselves of the opportunity to maximize their wealth. Stock markets, particularly equities, have the potential to generate inflation-beating returns. Also, with various other financial instruments on the offering, they help you diversify your portfolio. However, if a sour experience leads to you giving up on markets altogether, the loss is yours in the long run.      SYSTEMATIC - Systematic trading is related to quantitative trading. Quantitative trading includes all trading that use quantitative techniques; most quantitative trading involves using techniques to value market assets like derivatives but the trading decision may be systematic or discretionary. Systematic trading associates with a number of risks, the returns can be very volatile and funds can quickly amass substantial trading losses without proper risk management.[5] Therefore, systematic trading should take into account the importance of risk management, using a systematic approach to quantify risk, consistent limits and techniques to define how to close excessively risky positions. Systematic trading, in fact, lends itself to control risk precisely because it allows money managers to define profit targets, loss points, trade size, and system shutdown points objectively and in advance of entering each trade. No self-sabotage: Self-sabotage refers to behaviors or thought patterns that hold you back and prevent you from doing what you want to do. Self-sabotage occurs when we destroy ourselves physically, mentally, or emotionally or deliberately hinder our own success and wellbeing by undermining personal goals and values (Brenner, 2019). It is “insidious, profound, and universal” and emanates from negative mindsets (Berg, 2015). Self-sabotage, also known as behavioral dysregulation, can be conscious or unconscious depending on level of awareness. An example of conscious self-sabotage is deciding to eat cake, despite a goal to eat healthy. Unconscious self-sabotage happens when a personal goal or value has been undermined but not initially recognized. Someone with a fear of failure might wait until the last minute to work on an important project, unconsciously avoiding the prospect of advancement (Wignall, 2020). Another dimension of self-sabotage is cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is the internal imbalance or discomfort experienced when words or actions do not align with beliefs and values. When this happens, we act to ease the discomfort by changing our words or behaviors or by reframing our goals and values. It seems unlikely that anyone would intentionally sabotage themselves, yet they do, and the consequences can be caustic. Chronic self-sabotage depletes drive and motivation and leaves us sad, anxious, and with damaged self-esteem. NISKAM PRINCIPLE - Working without expectation of reward _____ In Sanskrit, nishkam means “action without motive,” “work without desire" or "desire-less.” FEARLESS - Feeling of overcoming fear ______ CLEANLINESS - Neat and tidy ______ NO WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT - Maintaining balance between family and work demand ______ NISKAM PRINCIPLE - Working without expectation of reward ______ CHALLENGING - Competing against one ______ SELF-UNDERSTANDING- Feedback to self about own success and failure ______ DOUBTLESS - Free from uncertainty in belief ______ FREE FROM FEAR OF FAILURE - Free from anticipated failure ______  RESOLUTE- Determined in purpose ______ ACTIVE - Avoiding laziness ______

This may sound trivial, and you probably think that you know what you are doing at all times. However, that is likely false. After all, most traders can remember asking themselves “What was I thinking?!” at one point or another after closing out a losing trade.

A trader who lacks self-awareness goes through their trading day without fully having a sense of what they are doing. I was guilty of this myself. I would research for random trade setups to take, execute and manage orders to the best of my ability (or so I thought), and try to squeeze out some gains where I could. Later that same evening, I would wonder what went wrong, why I didn’t make any money, and simply hope things would turn out better the next trading day.

During that stage of my trading career, I did not fully understand that my lack of consistency (and thus lack of trading success) had something to do with my overall approach to trading, and not with my actual methodology. I considered myself a well educated trader, as I was strong with technical analysis, and decent with risk management - I had assumed it was only matter of time before things clicked and I discovered what worked!

A study completed on day traders found that “Very few rated themselves as below average. They attributed their losses to difficult market conditions and situational mistakes. Surprisingly, they rationalized losses as part of their learning curves--even when those losses extended for many months and even years!” This point thoroughly demonstrates that an absence of self-awareness hinders traders from reaching their full potential.

As most new traders do, I was losing money for an uncomfortably long time - Of course, this approach is not sustainable and can only go on for so long. I knew I needed a change. This moment of forced self-awareness was an important and very humbling step in my journey as a trader. When I reflect on this period, I recall a handful of principles that became essential to my continued success and profitability - I still use these concepts daily.

 Imagining positive power or energy ______                   

EMOTIONAL CONTROL-Controlling unwanted emotion   ______          

SYSTEMATIC - Following planned step ______

SELF-INSULTING LESS - Not offending to self ______

FEARLESS - Feeling of overcoming fear ______

CLEANLINESS - Neat and tidy ______

NO WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT - Maintaining balance between family and work demand ______

NISKAM PRINCIPLE - Working without expectation of reward ______

CHALLENGING - Competing against one ______

SELF-UNDERSTANDING- Feedback to self about own success and failure ______

DOUBTLESS - Free from uncertainty in belief ______

FREE FROM FEAR OF FAILURE - Free from anticipated failure ______ 

RESOLUTE- Determined in purpose ______

ACTIVE - Avoiding laziness ______

is life skill just like man learns how to run after repeated fall on the ground. Investment means sharing your feelings with others, investment means social responsibility. 

Investment is life skills

Self-awareness 

Monitoring the trading Market and the company

Trade marketing is a wider marketing discipline that aims to increase demand with supply chain partners such as wholesalers, retailers, or at the distributor level, rather than just at the customer level. Trade Marketing is also called B2B marketing or business-to-business marketing. All the promotional activities are aimed at increasing the demand of the product among the various supply chain partners. Before investment, investors will pay much attention to the company activities: Organizational structure, climate, leadership, employer-employee relationship, organizational culture, organizational coping, organizational resilience, technology adoption, marketing strategy, brand making, market volatility.

Stop expecting and start acceptance

In investment theory, there is one fuzzy concept- stop happiness and expect happiness.  It means that when market is vulnerable or volatile, reduce expectations otherwise errors of expectations will be coming. And accept the return. 

Accept market volatility : Volatility is a statistical measure of the dispersion of returns for a given security or market index. In most cases, the higher the volatility, the riskier the security. Volatility is often measured as either the standard deviation or variance between returns from that same security or market index. Volatility often refers to the amount of uncertainty or risk related to the size of changes in a security's value. A higher volatility means that a security's value can potentially be spread out over a larger range of values. This means that the price of the security can change dramatically over a short time period in either direction. A lower volatility means that a security's value does not fluctuate dramatically, and tends to be more steady.

When market is very much volatile, you can expect vulnerable behavior in the market. At this juncture, it is better not to encourage your obsessions to invest much. Rather, it is better to stop much expectation. So, as investor, you are supposed to know more about some basic statistical tools - standard deviation, variance, coefficient of variation, 

covariance, correlation, moving average, weighted moving average, regression and correspondence analysis. They have to know few data visualization tools as box whisker plot, time series plot. 

6 ratios 

EPS: Earnings per share.

Earnings per share (EPS) is calculated as a company's profit divided by the outstanding shares of its common stock. The resulting number serves as an indicator of a company's profitability. It is common for a company to report EPS that is adjusted for extraordinary items and potential share dilution.The higher a company's EPS, the more profitable it is considered to be.Do not invest if there is more ups and downs in EPS. Compare EPS with EPS of other similar companies. 

P/E : Share price / EPS.

Debt to Equity ratio

Invitation from NSE

National Stock Exchange of India Limited along with Securities Exchange Board of India (SEBI), National Institute of Securities Market (NISM) along with 6 other Market Infrastructure Institutions (MIIs) are participating in the 45th Kolkata International Book Fair. We as a consortium have set up a stall at the Kolkata Book Fair with the objective of empowering the Investors through Education and Awareness. 

We have got an opportunity to further our objective and reach a larger audience from the Centre stage of the Kolkata Book Fair (Central Park, Salt lake) from 01:00 PM to 1:45 PM on March 2nd, 2022 on the Topic (Financial Market – A Unique Perspective). In view of the same we take great pleasure in inviting you as our GUEST Speaker for the event. Your expertise and enriching experience will be an excellent addition to our program as many of our visitors including all of us look forward to hearing and learning from your experience.

We request you to make it convenient to attend the program as a Guest speaker from 01:00 PM to 1:45 PM on March 2nd, 2022 at Central Park, Salt lake.

Enthusiastically anticipating for a positive response. 

In case of any further query, please feel free to contact with Mr. Sourav Roy (09831439387)

 

Thanks & Regards, 

 

Sourav Roy 

National Stock Exchange of India Limited (NSE) 

1st Floor, Park View Apartments, 99, Rash Behari Avenue, Kolkata – 700029 

Web: www.nseindia.com | Email: souravr@nse.co.in 

 

Project Management: CPM & PERT

 Critical path method (CPM) is a resource-utilization algorithm for scheduling a set of project activities. The essential technique for using CPM is to construct a model of the project that includes the following:

• A list of all tasks required to complete the project
• The dependencies between the tasks
• The estimate of time (duration) that each activity will take to complete With this information, you can determine the critical path by identifying the longest stretch of dependent activities and measuring them from start to finish.
• Once you’ve identified which activities are on the longest, or critical path, you can more easily discern which have total float, or can be delayed without making the project longer.

Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) is a project management planning tool used to calculate the amount of time it will take to realistically finish a project. ... PERT is similar to critical path in that they are both used to visualize the timeline and the work that must be done for a project. It can deal with non-dependent events also.

DIfference

Data collection in Forensic Psychology

Observation

Observational research is a type of descriptive research that differs from most other forms of data gathering in that the researcher’s goal is not to manipulate the variables being observed. While participants may or may not be aware of the researchers’ presence, the researchers do not try to control variables (as in an experiment), or ask participants to respond to direct questions (as in an interview or survey based study). Instead, the participants are simply observed in a natural setting, defined as a place in which behavior ordinarily occurs, rather than a place that has been arranged specifically for the purpose of observing the behavior. Unlike correlational and experimental research which use quantitative data, observational studies tend to use qualitative data.

For example, social psychologists Roger Barker and Herbert Wright studied how a sample of children interacted with their daily environments. They observed the children go to school, play with friends, and complete daily chores, and learned a great deal about how children interact with their environments and how their environments shape their character. Similarly, anthropologist Jane Goodall studied the behavior of chimpanzees, taking careful notes on their tool making, family relationships, hunting, and social behavior. Her early work served as the basis for future research on chimpanzees and animal behavior in general.

Advantages of Observational Studies

By observing events as they naturally occur, patterns in behavior will emerge and general questions will become more specific. The hypotheses that result from these observations will guide the researcher in shaping data into results.

One advantage of this type of research is the ability to make on-the-fly adjustments to the initial purpose of a study. These observations also capture behavior that is more natural than behavior occurring in the artificial setting of a lab and that is relatively free of some of the bias seen in survey responses. However, the researcher must be careful not to apply his or her own biases to the interpretation. Researchers may also use this type of data to verify external validity, allowing them to examine whether study findings generalize to real world scenarios.

Laboratory Observation: Laboratory observation can feel artificial to participants and influence their behavior. Observation in a natural setting allows researchers to document behavior without this influence.

There are some areas of study where observational studies are more advantageous than others. This type of research allows for the study of phenomena that may be unethical to control for in a lab, such as verbal abuse between romantic partners. Observation is also particularly advantageous as a cross-cultural reference. By observing people from different cultures in the same setting, it is possible to gain information on cultural differences.

Disadvantages of Observational Studies

While observational studies can generate rich qualitative data, they do not produce quantitative data, and thus mathematical analysis is limited. Researchers also cannot infer causal statements about the situations they observe, meaning that cause and effect cannot be determined. Behavior seen in these studies can only be described, not explained.

There are also ethical concerns related to observing individuals without their consent. One way to avoid this problem is to debrief participants after observing them and to ask for their consent at that time. Overt observation, where the participants are aware of the researcher’s presence, is another option to overcome this problem. However, this tactic does have its drawbacks. When subjects know they are being watched, they may alter their behavior in an attempt to make themselves look more admirable.

This type of research can also be very time consuming. Some studies require dozens of observation sessions lasting for several hours and sometimes involving several researchers. Without the use of multiple researchers, the chances of observer bias increase; because behavior is perceived so subjectively, it is possible that two observers will notice different things or draw different conclusions from the same behavior.

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The activities of forensic psychologists include the assessment of competency to stand trial and criminal responsibility, determining the validity of defenses (such as intoxication, amnesia, dissociative identity disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder), predicting violent behavior, assessing eyewitness testimony and personal injury, providing testimony on appropriate sentencing, profiling, and contributing to child custody evaluations. The most important forensic assessment procedures are the forensic interview and psychological testing, while forensic hypnosis is also sometimes used. Because reliability is questioned, the polygraph is seldom employed. 

Competency to Stand Trial 

Mental health professionals often conduct evaluations to assist courts in determining whether a criminal defendant is competent to participate in the adjudicatory process.In Dusky v. United States (1960), the U.S. Supreme Court articulated specific functional abilities that defendants must have to participate competently in the adjudicatory process: They must be able to assist counsel, and they must have both a rational and a factual understanding of the proceedings against them.

Most, if not all, jurisdictions recognize only mental impairment—often characterized as “mental disease or defect”—as a basis for incompetence to proceed to adjudication. When questions about a defendant’s mental capacities arise, the courts almost invariably solicit the assistance of mental health professionals (primarily psychiatrists and psychologists) in resolving the issue. These forensic evaluators attempt to inform the court whether, and the extent to which, the defendant’s functional abilities required by Dusky are compromised by psychiatric problems.

 A variety of instruments have been developed to help structure these forensic assessments; this entry describes one of the more contemporary competence assessment instruments, the MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool-Criminal Adjudication (MacCAT-CA).

=================================== 

MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool-Criminal Adjudication (MacCAT-CA).=

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In the United States, people accused of crimes have certain rights with respect to the adjudicatory process that are guaranteed by the Constitution. In particular, they have the Fifth Amendment protection against self-incrimination and rights articulated in the Sixth Amendment, which include the assistance of legal counsel, the right to confront their accusers, and the right to trial by a jury of their peers.

Competency to stand trial (CST) is related to the defendant's capacity to engage in a satisfactory level of participation in the court process. While the extant studies focus mainly on assessment-related issues such as assessment methods, guidelines for competency evaluations, and quality of competency evaluations,

or Fitness to Stand Trial requires that a defendant understands the nature and purpose of the legal proceedings against him and be able to effectively cooperate with counsel in his defense. It consists of two components: (1) foundational competence- a basic understanding of the trial process as well as the capacity to provide a lawyer with informational relevant to the trial: and (2) decisional competence- the capacity to make informed, independent decisions. Forensic Psychologist's function is to assess mental retardation, hallucination, delusion etc.

What factors are considered in competency to stand trial CST determinations?

(1) ability to understand the charge; (2) ability to plead to the charge and exercise the right to challenge; (3) understanding of the basic nature of the proceedings; (4) ability to follow the course of the proceedings in broad terms; (5) ability to understand the substantial effect of any evidence and be able to make 

According to the American Psychological Association, forensic psychology is narrowly defined as a “specialty in professional psychology characterized by activities primarily intended to provide professional psychological expertise within the judicial and legal systems.” 

The American Board of Forensic Psychology defines forensic psychology as “the application of the science and profession of psychology to questions and issues relating to law and the legal system.” 

Forensic science examines the scientific evidence at a crime scene—DNA collection and analysis, fingerprinting, ballistics studies and other laboratory work. Forensic psychology applies the study of psychology within a legal framework. Yet both are integral parts of today’s judicial system.

Practicing Forensic Psychology

In an article for the Psychology Student Network in September 2013, Dr. Jane Tyler Ward broadens the original definition of forensic psychology when talking about the practice today. “The practice of forensic psychology, and perhaps the most frequent duty of forensic psychologists, is the psychological assessment of individuals who are involved, in one way or another, with the legal system. Therefore, although it is necessary to have training in law and forensic psychology, the most important skills a forensic psychologist must possess are solid clinical skills.”

Important clinical skills that a psychologist should develop to work within the field of forensic psychology include:

• Clinical assessment
• Interviewing
• Report writing
• Strong verbal communication skills
• Case presentation
• Investigation techniques
• Research studies
• Assessments and consultations

According to the American Board of Forensic Psychology, “the practice of forensic psychology refers to the application of scientific, technical, or specialized knowledge of psychology to inform matters of law within the judicial system, legislative bodies, and administrative agencies.” The board goes on to describe how important it is for new forensic psychologists to learn how to conduct psychological evaluations, treatment, or research in anticipation of legal proceedings; offer expert psychological opinions in the form of testimony or amicus briefs; and to provide trial consultation.

Working as a Forensic Psychologist

What type of work can a psychologist expect to find after studying the science of forensic psychology? According to Marisa Mauro, Psy.D., in an article for Psychology Today, a psychologist might find work in prisons, jails, rehabilitation centers, police departments, law firms, schools, government agencies or private practice. As Dr. Mauro describes, the psychologist provides everything from assessments to screenings, counseling services to crisis management. “The field seems limitless,” say Dr. Mauro. “Psychologists working in forensic psychology research or academic settings may teach or research on any topic in which psychology and the law interact.”

Northcentral University’s Master of Science in Forensic Psychology program* helps prepare you to apply psychological principles in forensic settings and equips you to work within the justice system, with law enforcement, the courts, corrections, and departments of victim services. In this 100% online program, you will be immersed in the psychology of criminality through seven courses specific to succeeding in this cutting edge field, as well as three electives to augment your depth of knowledge. As a master’s student, you will be expected to think critically and apply your problem-solving and creative thinking skills to practical application of forensic psychology, while adhering to ethical principles in research and academics.

According to James Billings, Dean, School of Social and Behavioral Sciences, “NCU’s Master of Science in Forensic Psychology degree has been designed to equip students for the important work of understanding the criminal mind, and the root causes of criminal and antisocial behavior. They will be prepared for a variety of career paths that rely on the expertise of forensic psychologists.”

Forensic science examines the scientific evidence at a crime scene—DNA collection and analysis, fingerprinting, ballistics studies and other laboratory work. Forensic psychology applies the study of psychology within a legal framework.