The Atkinson–Shiffrin model (also known as the multi-store model or modal model) is a model of memory proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin.[1] The model asserts that human memory has three separate components:
- a sensory register, where sensory information enters memory. It includes iconic and echoic memory.Iconic memory is the storage for visual memory that allows people to visualize an image after the physical stimulus is no longer present. It is a type of sensory memory that lasts just milliseconds before fading. Echoic memory is the sensory memory that registers specific to auditory information. Once an auditory stimulus is heard, it is stored in memory so that it can be processed and understood. Unlike visual memory, in which our eyes can scan the stimuli over and over, the auditory stimuli cannot be scanned over and over.
- a short-term store, also called working memory or short-term memory, which receives and holds input from both the sensory register and the long-term store. Short-term memory is the capacity for holding, but not manipulating, a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time. For example, short-term memory can be used to remember a phone number that has just been recited.
- a long-term store, where information which has been rehearsed (explained below) in the short-term store is held indefinitely.
Since its first publication, this model has come under much scrutiny and has been criticized for various reasons (described below). However, it is notable for the significant influence it had in stimulating subsequent memory research.
Baddley's working memory
Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain, and later retrieve information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
How Memories Are Formed
In order to create a new memory, information must be changed into a usable form, which occurs through the process known as encoding. Once the information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use.
What Is Memory?
Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain, and later retrieve information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Human memory involves the ability to both preserve and recover information. However, this is not a flawless process. Sometimes people forget or misremember things. Sometimes things are not properly encoded in memory in the first place.
Memory problems are often relatively minor annoyances like forgetting birthdays. However, they can also be a sign of serious diseases, like Alzheimer's and other kinds of dementia. These conditions affect a person's quality of life and ability to function.
This article discusses how memories are formed and why they are sometimes forgotten. It also covers the different types of memory and steps you can take to improve and protect your memory.
How Memories Are Formed
In order to create a new memory, information must be changed into a usable form, which occurs through the process known as encoding. Once the information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use.
Researchers have long believed memories form due to changes in brain neurons. Today, experts believe that memories are created through the connections between neurons (nerve cells)—either the strengthening of existing connections or the growth of new connections.1
Changes in the connections between cells, known as synapses, are associated with the learning and retention of new information. Strengthening these connections helps commit information to memory.
This is why reviewing and rehearsing information improves the ability to remember it. Every time it is practiced, it strengthens the connections between the synapses that store that memory.
Much of this stored memory lies outside of our awareness most of the time except when we actually need to use it. The memory retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories into conscious awareness.
How Long Do Memories Last?
Some memories are very brief, just seconds long, and allow people to take in sensory information about the world.
Short-term memories are a bit longer and last about 20 to 30 seconds. These memories mostly consist of the information people are currently focusing on and thinking about.
Some memories are capable of enduring much longer, lasting days, weeks, months, or even decades. Most of these long-term memories lie outside of immediate awareness, but can be drawn into consciousness when needed.
Using Memory
To use the information that has been encoded into memory, it first has to be retrieved. There are many factors that can influence this process, including the type of information being used and the retrieval cues that are present.
Why We Forget
Forgetting is a surprisingly common event. Just consider how easy it is to forget someone’s name or overlook an important appointment. Why do people so often forget information they have learned in the past? There are four basic explanations for why forgetting occurs:
- Failure to store a memory
- Interference8
- Motivated forgetting
- Retrieval failure
Research has shown that one of the critical factors that influence memory failure is time. Information is often quickly forgotten, particularly if people do not actively review and rehearse the information.
Sometimes information is simply lost from memory and, in other cases, it was never stored correctly in the first place. Sometimes memories compete with one another, making it difficult to remember certain information. In other instances, people actively try to forget things that they simply don’t want to remember.
How to Improve Memory
No matter how great your memory is, there are probably a few things you can do to make it even better. Useful strategies to deal with mild memory loss include:5
- Write it down: The act of writing with a pen and paper helps implant the memory into your brain—and can also serve as a reminder or reference later on.9
- Attach meaning to it: You can remember something more easily if you attach meaning to it. For instance, if you associate a person you just meet with someone you already know, you may be able to remember their name better.
- Repeat it: Repetition helps the memory become encoded beyond your short-term memory.
- Group it: Information that is categorized becomes easier to remember and recall.
- Test yourself: While it may seem like studying and rehearsing information is the best way to ensure that you will remember it, researchers have found that being tested on information is actually one of the best ways to improve recall.2
- Take a mental picture: Systematically trying to make a mental note of things you often forget (such as where you left your car keys) can help you remember things better.
- Get enough rest: Research has also found that sleep plays a critical role in learning and the formation of new memories.5
- Use memorization techniques: Rehearsing information, employing mnemonics, and other memorization strategies can help combat minor memory problems.
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