Memory span testing

Definition of Memory

Memory refers to the psychological processes of acquiring, storing, retaining, and later retrieving information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Span of Memory 

Memory span may be defined functionally as "the ability of an individual to reproduce immediately, after one presentation, a series of discrete stimuli in their original order."

In psychology and neuroscience, memory span is the longest list of items that a person can repeat back in correct order immediately after presentation on 50% of all trials. Items may include words, numbers, or letters. The task is known as digit span when numbers are used.

Factors 

Memory span involves processes of attention, associability, imagery, and memory. Variation in memory span with material and sense organ may result from inaccuracies in methods used to study a general ability or from specificity of memory span. Memory span is influenced by extrinsic factors (characteristics of the material used, rhythm of presentation, rate of presentation, method of scoring the responses, fatigue, time of day, attitude, distraction, practice, subjective grouping of the units, temporary pathological condition, effect of drugs) and intrinsic factors (age, sex, race, permanent pathological condition). Extrinsic factors can be controlled carefully enough for memory span tests to show high reliability. The relation between memory span and intelligence has led to its use as a clinical test.

Memory span test

A. Forward test : 

Digit Span Forward requires the subject to repeat numbers in the same order as read aloud by the examiner.Digit span forward is a good measure of simple attention, and most healthy individuals perform within the seven plus/minus two span of apprehension range.

B. Backward test:

Digit Span Backward requires the child to repeat the numbers in the reverse order of that presented by the examiner. Digit Span backwards represents a qualitatively different type of task that relies more upon working memory skills that should be considered separately from digits forward .

Memory and Brain

Prefrontal cortex is involved in short term memory. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays a central role in cognitive control functions. The temporal lobe is associated with episodic and long term semantic memory.

References

Blankenship, A. B. (1938). Memory span: a review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 35(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0061086.

Miller, G.A. (1956). The magical number seven plus or minus two. Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.

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Memory span refers to the number of items (usually words or digits) that a person can hold in working memory. Tests of memory span are often used to measure working memory capacity. A typical test of memory span involves having an examiner read a list of random digits (digit span) or words (word span) aloud at the rate of one per second. At the end of a sequence, subjects are asked to recall the items in order. The average span for normal adults is 7.

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Performance appraisal

Definition

The term “performance appraisal” refers to the regular review of an employee’s job performance and overall contribution to a company.

Purpose 

Companies use performance appraisals to give employees big-picture feedback on their work and to justify pay increases and bonuses, as well as termination decisions. Performance appraisals are usually designed by human resources (HR) departments as a way for employees to develop in their careers. They provide individuals with feedback on their job performance, ensuring that employees are managing and meeting the goals expected of them and giving them guidance on how to reach those goals if they fall short.

  Performance appraisals also help employees and their managers create a plan for employee development through additional training and increased responsibilities, as well as to identify ways that the employee can improve and move forward in their career.

Period 

They can be conducted at any given time but tend to be annual, semiannual, or quarterly.

Types

An organisation can use a wide variety of methods for conducting performance appraisals, depending on the nature of its business, the industry it operates in, the scale of its operations and the specific duties and responsibilities of its employees. These are some common types of appraisals:

1. Negotiated appraisal

Negotiated appraisals involve the use of a mediator during employee evaluation. Before offering any criticisms, the reviewer highlights what the employee is doing well. This type of evaluation is beneficial in situations where there is tension or disagreement between the employee and the manager.

2. Management by objective

Management by objective (MBO) is an appraisal method that involves both the manager and employee working together to identify goals for the employee. Following the establishment of a goal, both parties discuss the employee's progress towards achieving the said goals. When the review period is over, the manager assesses whether the employee met their goals and, in some cases, provides incentives for doing so.

3. Assessment centre

The assessment centre method allows employees to understand how others perceive them. This helps them understand the impact of their performance. Pre-assessment, assessment and post-assessment are the three stages involved in the assessment centre method. During the evaluation, the manager puts the person in role-play scenarios and exercises to see how successful they are in their current role.

4. Self-appraisal

A self-appraisal is when an employee reflects on their own performance. They can identify their strengths and weaknesses using this method. They can also highlight their achievements with the company, such as completing a large number of sales in a particular month. This type of appraisal usually entails filling out a form, and the manager may choose to follow up with a one-on-one meeting based on the written self-assessment.

5. Peer reviews

Peer reviews use coworkers as the evaluator for a particular employee. This type of performance evaluation can help determine whether a person works well in a team and contributes to their fair share of the workload. The employee who reviews the individual is usually someone who works closely with them and is familiar with their abilities and attitude.

6. Customer or client reviews

Customer or client reviews occur when those who use a company's product or service provide an evaluation. This gives the company insight into how others perceive the employee and their company. This type of evaluation can aid in improving employee performance and customer interactions.

7. Behaviourally anchored rating scale

Behaviourally anchored rating scale (BARS) appraisals measure an employee's performance by comparing it to specific behavioural examples. Businesses assign a score to each example to aid in collecting qualitative and quantitative data. This data helps managers evaluate an employee's performance against predetermined standards for their position.

8. Human resource accounting

The human resource accounting method or cost accounting method looks at the monetary value an employee brings to a company. It also considers how much it costs the company to keep the employee on the payroll. Service value and interpersonal relationships are two factors that this type of appraisal considers and lays emphasis on.